Palabras clave
Tolerancia política
Opinión pública
América Latina
Homosexuales
Opinión pública
América Latina
Homosexuales
Cómo citar
SELIGSON, Mitchell; MORALES, Daniel E. Moreno; RUSSO, Guilherme Azzi. Educación, la riqueza de las naciones y tolerancia política hacia los homosexuales: un análisis multinivel de 26 países de las Américas. Opinião Pública, Campinas, SP, v. 25, n. 2, p. 234–257, 2019. Disponível em: https://periodicos.sbu.unicamp.br/ojs/index.php/op/article/view/8656612. Acesso em: 17 jul. 2024.
Resumen
Mientras el efecto positivo de la educación sobre la tolerancia política con las minorías es bien conocido, entendemos mucho menos sobre el impacto de la educación en la tolerancia en diferentes contextos. Al utilizar técnicas de análisis multinivel, encontramos un efecto interactivo que indica que la educación a nivel individual tiene un mayor impacto sobre la tolerancia política hacia aquellos que se identifican como homosexuales en países más ricos. Los resultados sugieren que completar niveles adicionales de educación puede ser insuficiente para promover actitudes tolerantes hacia esta minoría, y que más inversión en educación lleva a mejores retornos. Corroboramos este resultado al mostrar que, donde los gastos educativos son mayores, el impacto promedio de la educación secundaria también es más grande. El estudio utiliza datos de encuestas conducidas en 26 países por el Barómetro de las Américas 2014 e indicadores del DataBank del Banco Mundial y Freedom House.
Citas
ADAMCZYK, A.; PITT, C. Shaping attitudes about homosexuality: the role of religion and cultural context. Social Science Research, vol. 38, nº 2, p. 338-351, 2009.
ANDERSEN, R.; FETNER, T. Economic inequality and intolerance: attitudes toward homosexuality in 35 democracies. American Journal of Political Science, vol. 52, nº 4, p. 942-958, 2008.
BEHREND, J. The uneveness of democracy at the subnational level: provincial closed games in Argentina. Latin American Research Review, vol. 46, nº 1, p. 150-176, Jan. 2011.
BIRDSALL, N.; ROSS, D.; SABOT, R. Inequality and growth reconsidered: lessons from east Asia. The World Bank Economic Review, vol. 9, nº 3, p. 477-508, 1995.
BOBO, L.; LICARI, F. Education and political tolerance: testing the effects of cognitive sophistication and target group affect. Public Opinion Quarterly, vol. 53, nº 3, p. 285, 1989.
BOIX, C.; STOKES, S. C. Endogenous democratization. World Politics, vol. 55, nº 4, p. 517-549, Jul. 2003.
BRAUN, M.; BEHR, B.; KACZMIREK, L. Assessing cross-national equivalence of measures of xenophobia: evidence from probing web surveys. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, vol. 25, nº 3, p. 383-395, 2013.
CASPI, D.; SELIGSON, M. A. Toward an empirical theory of tolerance: radical groups in Israel and Costa Rica. Comparative Political Studies, vol. 15, p. 385-404, 1983.
CHEIBUB, J. A.; GANDHI, J.; VREELAND, J. R. Democracy and dictatorship revisited. Public Choice, vol. 143, nº 1-2, p. 57-101, 2010.
CNUDDE, C. F.; NEUBAUER, D. E. New trends in democratic theory. In: CNUDDE, C. F.; NEUBAUER, D. E. (eds.). Empirical democratic theory. Chicago: Markham, 1969.
DAHL, R. A. Polyarchy: participation and opposition. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971.
DION, M. L.; DÍEZ, J. Democratic values, religiosity, and support for same‐sex marriage in Latin America. Latin American Politics and Society, vol. 59, nº 4, p. 75-98, 2017.
DUCH, R. M.; STEVENSON, R. Context and the economic vote: a multilevel analysis. Political Analysis, vol. 13, nº 4, p. 387-409, 2005.
DYNES, W. Education and tolerance: an analysis of intervening factors. Social Forces, vol. 46, nº 1, p. 22-34, Sep. 1967.
FALLETI, T. Decentralization and subnational politics in Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
FRANZESE, C. H. Empirical strategies for various manifestations of multilevel data. Political Analysis, vol. 13, nº 4, p. 430-446, 2005.
FRANZESE, R. J. J. Context matters: the challenge of multicausality, context-conditionality and endogeneity for empirical evaluation of positive theory in comparative politics. In: BOIX, C.; STOKES, S. C. (eds.). The Oxford handbook of comparative politics. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
GELMAN, A. Two-stage regression and multilevel modeling: a commentary. Political Analysis, vol. 13, nº 4, p. 459-461, Aug. 2005.
GIBSON, E. L. Politics of the periphery: an introduction to subnational authoritarianism and democratization in Latin America. Journal of Politics in Latin America, vol. 2, p. 3-12, 2010.
GIBSON, J. L. Political intolerance and political repression during the McCarthy red scare. American Political Science Review, vol. 82, p. 511-529, 1988.
GIBSON, J. L. Alternative measures of political tolerance: must tolerance be 'least-liked?'. American Journal of Political Science, vol. 36, p. 560-577, May 1992.
GIBSON, J. L. Enigmas of intolerance: fifty years after stouffer's communism, conformity, and civil liberties. Perspectives on Politics, vol. 4, nº 1, p. 21-34, Mar. 2006.
GIBSON, J. L. Intolerance and political repression in the United States: a half-century after McCarthyism. American Journal of Political Science, vol. 52, nº 1, p. 96-108, Jan. 2008.
GIBSON, J. L. Measuring political tolerance and general support for pro-civil liberties policies: notes, evidence and cautions. Public Opinion Quarterly, vol. 77, nº 1, p. 45-68, 2013.
GIRAUDY, A. Subnational democracy: lessons from Latin America. APSA Comparative Democratization Newsletter, vol. 10, nº 1, p. 1-8, 2012.
HEINZE, J.; HORN, S. S. Intergroup contact and beliefs about homosexuality in adolescence. Journal of Youth Adolescence, vol. 38, p. 937-951, 2009.
HISKEY, J. The political economy of subnational economic recovery in Mexico. Latin American Research Review, vol. 40, nº 1, p. 30-49, Feb. 2005.
HOOGHE, M., et al. Anti-gay sentiment among adolescents in Belgium and Canada: a comparative investigation into the role of gender and religion. Journal of Homosexuality, vol. 57, nº 3, p. 384-400, 2010.
HUBER, E.; MUSTILLO, T.; STEPHENS, J. D. The politics of social spending in Latin America. Journal of Politics, vol. 70, nº 2, p. 420-436, 2008.
INGLEHART, R. The silent revolution: changing values and political styles among western publics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977.
INGLEHART, R. The renaissance of political culture. American Political Science Review, vol. 82, nº 4, p. 1.203-1.230, Dec. 1988.
INGLEHART, R. Culture shift in advanced industrial society. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.
INGLEHART, R. Modernization and postmodernization: cultural, economic and political change in 43 societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997.
INGLEHART, R. Culture and democracy. In: HARRISON, L. E.; HUNTINGTON, S. P. (eds.). Culture matters: how values shape human progress. New York: Basic Books, p. 80-97, 2000.
INGLEHART, R.; NORRIS, P. Rising tide: gender equality and cultural change around the world. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
INGLEHART, R.; WELZEL, C. Modernization, cultural change, and democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
JACKMAN, R. W. Political elites, mass politics, and support for democratic principles. Journal of Politics, vol. 34, nº 3, p. 752-764, 1972.
JACKSON, C. K.; JOHNSON, R. C.; PERSICO, C. Boosting educational attainment and adult earnings. Education Next, vol. 15, nº 4, p. 69-76, Fall 2015.
JACKSON, C. K.; JOHNSON, R. C.; PERSICO, C. The effects of school spending on educational and economic outcomes: evidence from school finance reforms. Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 131, nº 1, p. 157-218, Feb. 2016.
JUSKO, K. L.; SHIVELY, W. P. Applying a two-step strategy to the analysis of cross-national public opinion data. Political Analysis, vol. 13, nº 4, p. 327-344, 2005.
KIRCHNER, A.; FREITAG, M.; RAPP, C. Crafting tolerance: the role of political institutions in comparative perspective. European Poltical Science Review, vol. 3, nº 2, p. 201-227, 2011.
LAFORTUNE, J.; ROTHSTEIN, J.; SCHANZENBACH, D. W. School finance reform and the distribution of student achievement. National Bureau of Economic Research. Cambridge, Feb. 2016.
LIPSET, S. M. Some social requisites of democracy: economic development and political legitimacy. American Political Science Review, vol. 53, p. 65-105, Mar. 1959.
LIPSET, S. M. Political man: the social bases of politics. Expanded edition, 1981. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961.
MCGUIRE, J. W. Development policy and its determinants in East Asia and Latin America. International Journal of Public Policy, vol. 14, nº 2, p. 205-242, 1994.
MONDAK, J. J.; SANDERS, M. S. Tolerance and intolerance, 1976-1998. American Journal of Political Science, vol. 47, nº 3, p. 492-502, Jul. 2003.
MORENO, D.; SELIGSON, M. Educación y tolerancia política en Bolivia. In: SELIGSON, M. A.; MORENO, D. (eds.). La cultura política de los Bolivianos: aproximaciones cuantitativas. Cochabamba: Ciudadanía - Lapop-Usaid, 2006.
NIE, N. H.; JUNN, J.; STEHLIK-BARRY, K. Education and democratic citizenship in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
NUNN, C. A.; CROCKETT, H. J.; WILLIAMS, J. A. Tolerance for nonconformity: a national survey of changing commitment to civil liberties. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1978.
ORTMANNS, V.; SCHNEIDER, S. L. Harmonization still failing? Inconsistency of education variables in cross-national public opinion surveys. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, vol. 28, nº 4, p. 562-82, Dec. 2016.
PEFFLEY, M.; HUTCHISON, M. L.; SHAMIR, M. The impact of persistent terrorism on political tolerance: Israel, 1980 to 2011. American Political Science Review, vol. 109, nº 4, p. 817-832, Nov. 2015.
PEFFLEY, M.; ROHRSCHNEIDER, R. Democratization and political tolerance in seventeen countries: a multi-level model of democratic learning. Political Research Quarterly, vol. 56, nº 3, p. 243-257, Sep. 2003.
PROTHRO, J. W.; GRIGG, C. M. Fundamental principles of democracy: bases of agreement and disagreement. Journal of Politics, vol. 22, nº 2, p. 276-294, 1960.
PRZEWORSKI, A., et al. Democracy and development: political institutions and well-being in the world, 1950-1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
PURYEAR, J.; ORTEGA, T. How can education help Latin America develop?. Global Journal of Emerging Market Economies, vol. 3, nº 1, p. 111-134, 2011.
RAPP, C.; FREITAG, M. Teaching tolerance? Associational diversity and tolerance. Political Studies, vol. 63, nº 5, p. 1.031-1.051, Dec. 2015.
SELIGSON, M. A. The renaissance of political culture or the renaissance of ecological fallacy. Comparative Politics, vol. 34, p. 273-292, Apr. 2002.
SELIGSON, M. A.; CASPI, D. Challenging the pluralistic intolerance thesis: a reply. Comparative Political Studies, vol. 17, p. 345-350, Oct. 1984.
STEENBERGEN, M. R.; JONES, B. S. Modeling multilevel data structures. American Journal of Political Science, vol. 46, nº 1, p. 218-237, 2002.
STOJNIC, L.; ALFARO, A. R. Experiencia educativa y tolerancia política: el caso de una muestra de estudiantes universitarios peruanos. Revista Internacional de Educación para la Justicia Social, vol. 5, nº 1, 2016.
STOUFFER, S. C. Communism, conformity and civil liberties. New York: Doubleday, 1955.
SULLIVAN, J. L.; PIERSON, J. E.; MARCUS, G. E. An alternative conceptualization of political tolerance: illusory increases 1950s-1970s. American Political Science Review, nº 73, p. 781-794, 1979.
SULLIVAN, J. L.; PIERSON, J. E.; MARCUS, G. E. Political tolerance and American democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
VAN DEN AKKER, H.; PLOEG, R. V. D.; SCHEEPERS, P. Disapproval of homosexuality: comparative research on individual and national determinants of disapproval of homosexuality in 20 European countries. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, vol. 25, nº 1, p. 64-86, 2013.
VATTER, A.; STADELMANN-STEFFEN, I.; DANACI, D. Who supports minority rights in popular votes? Empirical evidence from Switzerland. Electoral Studies, vol. 36, p. 1-14, 2014.
WAGNER, U.; ZICK, A. The relation of formal education to ethnic prejudice: its reliability, validity and explanation. European Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 25, p. 41-56, 1995.
WATTS, J. Brazil's austerity package decried by UN as attack on poor people. London: The Guardian, 2016. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/09/brazil-austerity-cuts-unofficial. Accessed on: January 15, 2017.
WELDON, S. A. The institutional context of tolerance for ethnic minorities: a comparative, multilevel analysis of Western Europe. American Journal of Political Science, vol. 50, nº 2, p. 331-349, 2006.
WELZEL, C.; INGLEHART, R. Mass beliefs in comparative politics. In: BOIX, C.; STOKES, S. C. (ed.). The Oxford handbook of comparative politics. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
ANDERSEN, R.; FETNER, T. Economic inequality and intolerance: attitudes toward homosexuality in 35 democracies. American Journal of Political Science, vol. 52, nº 4, p. 942-958, 2008.
BEHREND, J. The uneveness of democracy at the subnational level: provincial closed games in Argentina. Latin American Research Review, vol. 46, nº 1, p. 150-176, Jan. 2011.
BIRDSALL, N.; ROSS, D.; SABOT, R. Inequality and growth reconsidered: lessons from east Asia. The World Bank Economic Review, vol. 9, nº 3, p. 477-508, 1995.
BOBO, L.; LICARI, F. Education and political tolerance: testing the effects of cognitive sophistication and target group affect. Public Opinion Quarterly, vol. 53, nº 3, p. 285, 1989.
BOIX, C.; STOKES, S. C. Endogenous democratization. World Politics, vol. 55, nº 4, p. 517-549, Jul. 2003.
BRAUN, M.; BEHR, B.; KACZMIREK, L. Assessing cross-national equivalence of measures of xenophobia: evidence from probing web surveys. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, vol. 25, nº 3, p. 383-395, 2013.
CASPI, D.; SELIGSON, M. A. Toward an empirical theory of tolerance: radical groups in Israel and Costa Rica. Comparative Political Studies, vol. 15, p. 385-404, 1983.
CHEIBUB, J. A.; GANDHI, J.; VREELAND, J. R. Democracy and dictatorship revisited. Public Choice, vol. 143, nº 1-2, p. 57-101, 2010.
CNUDDE, C. F.; NEUBAUER, D. E. New trends in democratic theory. In: CNUDDE, C. F.; NEUBAUER, D. E. (eds.). Empirical democratic theory. Chicago: Markham, 1969.
DAHL, R. A. Polyarchy: participation and opposition. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971.
DION, M. L.; DÍEZ, J. Democratic values, religiosity, and support for same‐sex marriage in Latin America. Latin American Politics and Society, vol. 59, nº 4, p. 75-98, 2017.
DUCH, R. M.; STEVENSON, R. Context and the economic vote: a multilevel analysis. Political Analysis, vol. 13, nº 4, p. 387-409, 2005.
DYNES, W. Education and tolerance: an analysis of intervening factors. Social Forces, vol. 46, nº 1, p. 22-34, Sep. 1967.
FALLETI, T. Decentralization and subnational politics in Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
FRANZESE, C. H. Empirical strategies for various manifestations of multilevel data. Political Analysis, vol. 13, nº 4, p. 430-446, 2005.
FRANZESE, R. J. J. Context matters: the challenge of multicausality, context-conditionality and endogeneity for empirical evaluation of positive theory in comparative politics. In: BOIX, C.; STOKES, S. C. (eds.). The Oxford handbook of comparative politics. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
GELMAN, A. Two-stage regression and multilevel modeling: a commentary. Political Analysis, vol. 13, nº 4, p. 459-461, Aug. 2005.
GIBSON, E. L. Politics of the periphery: an introduction to subnational authoritarianism and democratization in Latin America. Journal of Politics in Latin America, vol. 2, p. 3-12, 2010.
GIBSON, J. L. Political intolerance and political repression during the McCarthy red scare. American Political Science Review, vol. 82, p. 511-529, 1988.
GIBSON, J. L. Alternative measures of political tolerance: must tolerance be 'least-liked?'. American Journal of Political Science, vol. 36, p. 560-577, May 1992.
GIBSON, J. L. Enigmas of intolerance: fifty years after stouffer's communism, conformity, and civil liberties. Perspectives on Politics, vol. 4, nº 1, p. 21-34, Mar. 2006.
GIBSON, J. L. Intolerance and political repression in the United States: a half-century after McCarthyism. American Journal of Political Science, vol. 52, nº 1, p. 96-108, Jan. 2008.
GIBSON, J. L. Measuring political tolerance and general support for pro-civil liberties policies: notes, evidence and cautions. Public Opinion Quarterly, vol. 77, nº 1, p. 45-68, 2013.
GIRAUDY, A. Subnational democracy: lessons from Latin America. APSA Comparative Democratization Newsletter, vol. 10, nº 1, p. 1-8, 2012.
HEINZE, J.; HORN, S. S. Intergroup contact and beliefs about homosexuality in adolescence. Journal of Youth Adolescence, vol. 38, p. 937-951, 2009.
HISKEY, J. The political economy of subnational economic recovery in Mexico. Latin American Research Review, vol. 40, nº 1, p. 30-49, Feb. 2005.
HOOGHE, M., et al. Anti-gay sentiment among adolescents in Belgium and Canada: a comparative investigation into the role of gender and religion. Journal of Homosexuality, vol. 57, nº 3, p. 384-400, 2010.
HUBER, E.; MUSTILLO, T.; STEPHENS, J. D. The politics of social spending in Latin America. Journal of Politics, vol. 70, nº 2, p. 420-436, 2008.
INGLEHART, R. The silent revolution: changing values and political styles among western publics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977.
INGLEHART, R. The renaissance of political culture. American Political Science Review, vol. 82, nº 4, p. 1.203-1.230, Dec. 1988.
INGLEHART, R. Culture shift in advanced industrial society. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.
INGLEHART, R. Modernization and postmodernization: cultural, economic and political change in 43 societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997.
INGLEHART, R. Culture and democracy. In: HARRISON, L. E.; HUNTINGTON, S. P. (eds.). Culture matters: how values shape human progress. New York: Basic Books, p. 80-97, 2000.
INGLEHART, R.; NORRIS, P. Rising tide: gender equality and cultural change around the world. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
INGLEHART, R.; WELZEL, C. Modernization, cultural change, and democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
JACKMAN, R. W. Political elites, mass politics, and support for democratic principles. Journal of Politics, vol. 34, nº 3, p. 752-764, 1972.
JACKSON, C. K.; JOHNSON, R. C.; PERSICO, C. Boosting educational attainment and adult earnings. Education Next, vol. 15, nº 4, p. 69-76, Fall 2015.
JACKSON, C. K.; JOHNSON, R. C.; PERSICO, C. The effects of school spending on educational and economic outcomes: evidence from school finance reforms. Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 131, nº 1, p. 157-218, Feb. 2016.
JUSKO, K. L.; SHIVELY, W. P. Applying a two-step strategy to the analysis of cross-national public opinion data. Political Analysis, vol. 13, nº 4, p. 327-344, 2005.
KIRCHNER, A.; FREITAG, M.; RAPP, C. Crafting tolerance: the role of political institutions in comparative perspective. European Poltical Science Review, vol. 3, nº 2, p. 201-227, 2011.
LAFORTUNE, J.; ROTHSTEIN, J.; SCHANZENBACH, D. W. School finance reform and the distribution of student achievement. National Bureau of Economic Research. Cambridge, Feb. 2016.
LIPSET, S. M. Some social requisites of democracy: economic development and political legitimacy. American Political Science Review, vol. 53, p. 65-105, Mar. 1959.
LIPSET, S. M. Political man: the social bases of politics. Expanded edition, 1981. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961.
MCGUIRE, J. W. Development policy and its determinants in East Asia and Latin America. International Journal of Public Policy, vol. 14, nº 2, p. 205-242, 1994.
MONDAK, J. J.; SANDERS, M. S. Tolerance and intolerance, 1976-1998. American Journal of Political Science, vol. 47, nº 3, p. 492-502, Jul. 2003.
MORENO, D.; SELIGSON, M. Educación y tolerancia política en Bolivia. In: SELIGSON, M. A.; MORENO, D. (eds.). La cultura política de los Bolivianos: aproximaciones cuantitativas. Cochabamba: Ciudadanía - Lapop-Usaid, 2006.
NIE, N. H.; JUNN, J.; STEHLIK-BARRY, K. Education and democratic citizenship in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
NUNN, C. A.; CROCKETT, H. J.; WILLIAMS, J. A. Tolerance for nonconformity: a national survey of changing commitment to civil liberties. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1978.
ORTMANNS, V.; SCHNEIDER, S. L. Harmonization still failing? Inconsistency of education variables in cross-national public opinion surveys. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, vol. 28, nº 4, p. 562-82, Dec. 2016.
PEFFLEY, M.; HUTCHISON, M. L.; SHAMIR, M. The impact of persistent terrorism on political tolerance: Israel, 1980 to 2011. American Political Science Review, vol. 109, nº 4, p. 817-832, Nov. 2015.
PEFFLEY, M.; ROHRSCHNEIDER, R. Democratization and political tolerance in seventeen countries: a multi-level model of democratic learning. Political Research Quarterly, vol. 56, nº 3, p. 243-257, Sep. 2003.
PROTHRO, J. W.; GRIGG, C. M. Fundamental principles of democracy: bases of agreement and disagreement. Journal of Politics, vol. 22, nº 2, p. 276-294, 1960.
PRZEWORSKI, A., et al. Democracy and development: political institutions and well-being in the world, 1950-1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
PURYEAR, J.; ORTEGA, T. How can education help Latin America develop?. Global Journal of Emerging Market Economies, vol. 3, nº 1, p. 111-134, 2011.
RAPP, C.; FREITAG, M. Teaching tolerance? Associational diversity and tolerance. Political Studies, vol. 63, nº 5, p. 1.031-1.051, Dec. 2015.
SELIGSON, M. A. The renaissance of political culture or the renaissance of ecological fallacy. Comparative Politics, vol. 34, p. 273-292, Apr. 2002.
SELIGSON, M. A.; CASPI, D. Challenging the pluralistic intolerance thesis: a reply. Comparative Political Studies, vol. 17, p. 345-350, Oct. 1984.
STEENBERGEN, M. R.; JONES, B. S. Modeling multilevel data structures. American Journal of Political Science, vol. 46, nº 1, p. 218-237, 2002.
STOJNIC, L.; ALFARO, A. R. Experiencia educativa y tolerancia política: el caso de una muestra de estudiantes universitarios peruanos. Revista Internacional de Educación para la Justicia Social, vol. 5, nº 1, 2016.
STOUFFER, S. C. Communism, conformity and civil liberties. New York: Doubleday, 1955.
SULLIVAN, J. L.; PIERSON, J. E.; MARCUS, G. E. An alternative conceptualization of political tolerance: illusory increases 1950s-1970s. American Political Science Review, nº 73, p. 781-794, 1979.
SULLIVAN, J. L.; PIERSON, J. E.; MARCUS, G. E. Political tolerance and American democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
VAN DEN AKKER, H.; PLOEG, R. V. D.; SCHEEPERS, P. Disapproval of homosexuality: comparative research on individual and national determinants of disapproval of homosexuality in 20 European countries. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, vol. 25, nº 1, p. 64-86, 2013.
VATTER, A.; STADELMANN-STEFFEN, I.; DANACI, D. Who supports minority rights in popular votes? Empirical evidence from Switzerland. Electoral Studies, vol. 36, p. 1-14, 2014.
WAGNER, U.; ZICK, A. The relation of formal education to ethnic prejudice: its reliability, validity and explanation. European Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 25, p. 41-56, 1995.
WATTS, J. Brazil's austerity package decried by UN as attack on poor people. London: The Guardian, 2016. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/09/brazil-austerity-cuts-unofficial. Accessed on: January 15, 2017.
WELDON, S. A. The institutional context of tolerance for ethnic minorities: a comparative, multilevel analysis of Western Europe. American Journal of Political Science, vol. 50, nº 2, p. 331-349, 2006.
WELZEL, C.; INGLEHART, R. Mass beliefs in comparative politics. In: BOIX, C.; STOKES, S. C. (ed.). The Oxford handbook of comparative politics. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
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