Keywords
Girl soldiers
Victims
Colombia
Internal armed conflict.
Victims
Colombia
Internal armed conflict.
How to Cite
MARTUSCELLI, Patrícia Nabuco. Where are the girl soldiers? gender and armed conflict in Colombia. Cadernos Pagu, Campinas, SP, n. 55, p. e195519, 2019. Disponível em: https://periodicos.sbu.unicamp.br/ojs/index.php/cadpagu/article/view/8656406. Acesso em: 17 jul. 2024.
Abstract
This article discusses the concept of victim and its application in the study of child soldiers, considering a global discussion on the employment of girl soldiers in armed conflicts, since this group has a dual invisibility in the categories of women and children. The theoretical approach of this work is the discussion on victims and childhood. To discuss the application of the concept of victim to the situation of child soldiers, I use reports from international organizations, human rights organizations and secondary sources of ethnographic research with child soldiers in African and Asian countries. To illustrate the issue, a brief discussion is presented of the Colombian conflict using reports from human rights organizations and specialists who have interviewed child soldiers in the country. In Colombia, the voluntary enlistment of girls is a form of empowerment and escape from situations of violence, but violence and discrimination accompany them during their period with the armed group and their reintegration into the Colombian society. Thus, although they must have their status as victims recognized, their voices and experiences must be considered throughout the process to ensure their reintegration and rights. In addition, traditional views of victims fail to recognize their strategies of resistance and empowerment.
References
AMNESTY InternationaL. Colombia 2017/2018. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/americas/colombia/reportcolombia/. Acesso em: 24 mai. 2018.
ANNAN, Kofi. Child Soldiers – Life on the Front Line. Security Council Report, Secretary-General Kofi Annan, July 26th, 2000.
BRETT, Rachel. Adolescents volunteering for armed forces or armed groups. International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 85, nº 852, Dec. 2003a, pp.857-866.
BRETT, Rachel. Girl soldiers: denial of rights and responsibilities. Refugee Survey Quarterly, vol. 23, n o 2, 2004, pp. 30-37.
BOYDEN, Jo. The moral development of child soldiers: what do adults have to fear?. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, vol. 9, no 4, 2003, pp.343-362.
BURKE, Jason. Ex-child soldier Dominic Ongwen denies war crimes at ICC trial. The Guardian. 06 December 2016. Disponível em: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/06/dominic-ongwenthe-hague-trial-war-crimes-lra-uganda. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016.
CONVENÇÃO das Nações Unidas sobre os Direitos da Criança. Adotada pela Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas em 20 de novembro de 1989. Disponível em: http://www.unicef.org/brazil/pt/resources_10120.htm. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016.
CONVENÇÃO de Genebra relativa ao Estatuto dos Refugiados. Adotada em 28 de julho de 1951 pela Conferência das Nações Unidas de Plenipotenciários sobre o Estatuto dos Refugiados e Apátridas. Entrou em vigor em 22 de abril de 1954, de acordo com o artigo 43. Série Tratados da ONU, Nº 2545, Vol. 189.
CORTE Constitucional. República de Colombia. Sentencia C-069/16, 2016. Disponível em: http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/RELATORIA/2016/C069-16.htm. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016.
DUBINSKY, Karen. Children, ideology, and iconography: how babies rule the world. The Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth, vol. 5, nº 1, Winter 2012, pp. 5-13.
ENLOE, Cynthia. Bananas, beaches and bases: making feminist sense of international politics. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
ESTATUTO de Roma do Tribunal Penal Internacional. Adotado em Roma, Itália, pela Conferência Diplomática de Plenipotenciários das Nações Unidas para a Criação de um Tribunal Penal Internacional, em 17 de julho de 1998.
FASSIN, Didier; RECHTMAN, Richard. The empire of trauma: an inquiry into the condition of victimhood. Princeton, 2009.
FERNANDO, Jude L. Children's Rights: Beyond the Impasse. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 575, Children's Rights, May 2001, pp.8-24.
HUMAN Rights Watch (HRW). You’ll Learn Not to Cry: Child Combatants in Colombia. New York, 2003. ISBN 1564322882. ICRC. Children associated with armed forces or armed groups: In Brief. September 2013. Disponível em: https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/icrc-002-0824.pdf. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016.
LINS, Beatriz Accioly. A Lei nas entrelinhas. Dissertação (Mestrado em Antropologia Social), USP, São Paulo, 2014.
MACHEL, Graça. The Impact of War in Children. A/51/306. 26 August 1996. Disponível em: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/51/306. Acesso em: 22 mai. 2018.
MCKAY, Susan; MAZURANA, Dyan. Where are the girls? Girls in fighting forces in northern uganda, sierra leone and mozambique: their lives during and after war. Montreal, International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development, 2004.
MINISTERIO del Interior/Republica de Colombia. Ley 1448 de 10 junho de 2011. Disponível em: https://www.centrodememoriahistorica.gov.co/micrositios/caminosParaLaMemoria/descargables/ley1448.pdf. Acesso em 14 dez. 2016.
MONFORTE, Tanya M. Razing Child Soldiers. Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics, nº 27, Childhood, Creativity and Representation, 2007, pp.169-208.
NWOKO, Kenneth Chukwuemeka. A bleak future, a wasted generation: child soldier in Africa, issues of concern. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, vol. 13, nº 4, 2011, pp.1-17.
PARK, Augustine S. J. Other inhumane acts: forced marriage, girl soldiers and the special court for sierra leone. Social & Legal Studies, vol. 15, no 3, Sage Publications, 2006, pp.315–337.
PROTOCOLO Facultativo à Convenção sobre os Direitos da Criança sobre o Envolvimento de Crianças em Conflitos Armados. Adotado pela Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas, em 25 de maio de 2000. Disponível em: http://www.unicef.org/brazil/pt/resources_10124.htm. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016.
ROSEN, D. Child soldiers, International Humanitarian Law, and the Globalisation of Childhood. American Anthropologist, vol. 109, no 2, 2007, pp.96-3067.
SARTI, Cynthia. A vítima como figura contemporânea. Cadernos CRH, vol. 24, n o 61, Salvador, abril 2011, pp.51-61.
SNODGRASS, Lyn; OBIKA, Julaina. Reintegrating former child soldiers into their communities in northern Uganda: A case study. Africa in Focus: Governance in the 21st Century, 2011, pp.221-232.
SPELLINGS, Carolyn R. Scratching the surface: a comparison of girl soldiers from three geographic regions of the world. International Education, vol. 38, nº 1, 2008, pp. 21-39.
SPRINGER, Natalia. Como corderos entre lobos: del uso y reclutamiento de niñas, niños y adolescentes en el marco del conflicto armado y la criminalidad en Colombia. Bogotá: CODHES, 2012.
UNICEF. Cape Town Principles and Best Practices. Cape Town, South Africa, 27–30 April, 1997. Disponível em: http://www.unicef.org/emerg/index_childsoldiers.html. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016.
UNICEF. The Paris Principles: Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated with Armed Forces or Armed Groups, February 2007. Disponível em: http://www.unicef.org/emerg/files/ParisPrinciples310107English.pdf. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016].
USAID; OIM. Colombia. DDR and Child Soldiers Issues, September 2017. Disponível em: http://www.oim.org.co/sites/default/files/20.DDR%2BChildren%C2%B4s%20Issues_September%202017.pdf. – acesso em 22 mai. 2018]
UN High Commissioner For Refugees (UNHCR). Handbook and Guidelines on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, December 2011, HCR/1P/4/ENG/REV. 3. Disponível em: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4f33c8d92.html. Acesso em: 22 mai. 2018.
UNITED Nations Security Council (UNSC). Report of the SecretaryGeneral on children and armed conflict in Colombia. S/2009/434, 28 August 2009. Disponível em: http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2009/434. Acesso em: 24 mai. 2018.
UNITED Nations Security Council (UNSC).. Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict in Colombia. S/2012/171, 21 March 2012. Disponível em: http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2012/171. Acesso em: 24 mai. 2018.
UNITED Nations Security Council (UNSC).. Report on children and armed conflict in Colombia (September 2011-June 2016). S/2016/837. 4 October 2016. Disponível em: http://undocs.org/S/2016/837. Acesso em: 24 mai. 2018.
VAUTRAVERS, Alexandre J. Why child soldiers are such a complex issue? Refugee Survey Quarterly, vol. 27, nº 4, 2009, pp.96-107.
WATCHLIST on Children and Armed Conflict. Colombia's War on Children. New York, February 2004, pp.1-47.
WESSELLS, Michael G. The Recruitment and Use of Girls in Armed Forces and Groups in Angola: Implications for Ethical Research and Reintegration, 2007. Disponível em: http://www.cpcnetwork.org/admin/includes/doc_view.php?ID=471. Acesso em: 10 dez. 2016.
WORTHEN, Miranda et alii. I stand like a woman: empowerment and human rights in the context of community- based reintegration of girl mothers formerly associated with fighting forces and armed groups. Journal of Human Rights Practice, vol. 2, no 1, 2010, pp.49-70.
ANNAN, Kofi. Child Soldiers – Life on the Front Line. Security Council Report, Secretary-General Kofi Annan, July 26th, 2000.
BRETT, Rachel. Adolescents volunteering for armed forces or armed groups. International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 85, nº 852, Dec. 2003a, pp.857-866.
BRETT, Rachel. Girl soldiers: denial of rights and responsibilities. Refugee Survey Quarterly, vol. 23, n o 2, 2004, pp. 30-37.
BOYDEN, Jo. The moral development of child soldiers: what do adults have to fear?. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, vol. 9, no 4, 2003, pp.343-362.
BURKE, Jason. Ex-child soldier Dominic Ongwen denies war crimes at ICC trial. The Guardian. 06 December 2016. Disponível em: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/06/dominic-ongwenthe-hague-trial-war-crimes-lra-uganda. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016.
CONVENÇÃO das Nações Unidas sobre os Direitos da Criança. Adotada pela Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas em 20 de novembro de 1989. Disponível em: http://www.unicef.org/brazil/pt/resources_10120.htm. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016.
CONVENÇÃO de Genebra relativa ao Estatuto dos Refugiados. Adotada em 28 de julho de 1951 pela Conferência das Nações Unidas de Plenipotenciários sobre o Estatuto dos Refugiados e Apátridas. Entrou em vigor em 22 de abril de 1954, de acordo com o artigo 43. Série Tratados da ONU, Nº 2545, Vol. 189.
CORTE Constitucional. República de Colombia. Sentencia C-069/16, 2016. Disponível em: http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/RELATORIA/2016/C069-16.htm. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016.
DUBINSKY, Karen. Children, ideology, and iconography: how babies rule the world. The Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth, vol. 5, nº 1, Winter 2012, pp. 5-13.
ENLOE, Cynthia. Bananas, beaches and bases: making feminist sense of international politics. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
ESTATUTO de Roma do Tribunal Penal Internacional. Adotado em Roma, Itália, pela Conferência Diplomática de Plenipotenciários das Nações Unidas para a Criação de um Tribunal Penal Internacional, em 17 de julho de 1998.
FASSIN, Didier; RECHTMAN, Richard. The empire of trauma: an inquiry into the condition of victimhood. Princeton, 2009.
FERNANDO, Jude L. Children's Rights: Beyond the Impasse. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 575, Children's Rights, May 2001, pp.8-24.
HUMAN Rights Watch (HRW). You’ll Learn Not to Cry: Child Combatants in Colombia. New York, 2003. ISBN 1564322882. ICRC. Children associated with armed forces or armed groups: In Brief. September 2013. Disponível em: https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/icrc-002-0824.pdf. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016.
LINS, Beatriz Accioly. A Lei nas entrelinhas. Dissertação (Mestrado em Antropologia Social), USP, São Paulo, 2014.
MACHEL, Graça. The Impact of War in Children. A/51/306. 26 August 1996. Disponível em: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/51/306. Acesso em: 22 mai. 2018.
MCKAY, Susan; MAZURANA, Dyan. Where are the girls? Girls in fighting forces in northern uganda, sierra leone and mozambique: their lives during and after war. Montreal, International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development, 2004.
MINISTERIO del Interior/Republica de Colombia. Ley 1448 de 10 junho de 2011. Disponível em: https://www.centrodememoriahistorica.gov.co/micrositios/caminosParaLaMemoria/descargables/ley1448.pdf. Acesso em 14 dez. 2016.
MONFORTE, Tanya M. Razing Child Soldiers. Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics, nº 27, Childhood, Creativity and Representation, 2007, pp.169-208.
NWOKO, Kenneth Chukwuemeka. A bleak future, a wasted generation: child soldier in Africa, issues of concern. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, vol. 13, nº 4, 2011, pp.1-17.
PARK, Augustine S. J. Other inhumane acts: forced marriage, girl soldiers and the special court for sierra leone. Social & Legal Studies, vol. 15, no 3, Sage Publications, 2006, pp.315–337.
PROTOCOLO Facultativo à Convenção sobre os Direitos da Criança sobre o Envolvimento de Crianças em Conflitos Armados. Adotado pela Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas, em 25 de maio de 2000. Disponível em: http://www.unicef.org/brazil/pt/resources_10124.htm. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016.
ROSEN, D. Child soldiers, International Humanitarian Law, and the Globalisation of Childhood. American Anthropologist, vol. 109, no 2, 2007, pp.96-3067.
SARTI, Cynthia. A vítima como figura contemporânea. Cadernos CRH, vol. 24, n o 61, Salvador, abril 2011, pp.51-61.
SNODGRASS, Lyn; OBIKA, Julaina. Reintegrating former child soldiers into their communities in northern Uganda: A case study. Africa in Focus: Governance in the 21st Century, 2011, pp.221-232.
SPELLINGS, Carolyn R. Scratching the surface: a comparison of girl soldiers from three geographic regions of the world. International Education, vol. 38, nº 1, 2008, pp. 21-39.
SPRINGER, Natalia. Como corderos entre lobos: del uso y reclutamiento de niñas, niños y adolescentes en el marco del conflicto armado y la criminalidad en Colombia. Bogotá: CODHES, 2012.
UNICEF. Cape Town Principles and Best Practices. Cape Town, South Africa, 27–30 April, 1997. Disponível em: http://www.unicef.org/emerg/index_childsoldiers.html. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016.
UNICEF. The Paris Principles: Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated with Armed Forces or Armed Groups, February 2007. Disponível em: http://www.unicef.org/emerg/files/ParisPrinciples310107English.pdf. Acesso em: 14 dez. 2016].
USAID; OIM. Colombia. DDR and Child Soldiers Issues, September 2017. Disponível em: http://www.oim.org.co/sites/default/files/20.DDR%2BChildren%C2%B4s%20Issues_September%202017.pdf. – acesso em 22 mai. 2018]
UN High Commissioner For Refugees (UNHCR). Handbook and Guidelines on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, December 2011, HCR/1P/4/ENG/REV. 3. Disponível em: http://www.refworld.org/docid/4f33c8d92.html. Acesso em: 22 mai. 2018.
UNITED Nations Security Council (UNSC). Report of the SecretaryGeneral on children and armed conflict in Colombia. S/2009/434, 28 August 2009. Disponível em: http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2009/434. Acesso em: 24 mai. 2018.
UNITED Nations Security Council (UNSC).. Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict in Colombia. S/2012/171, 21 March 2012. Disponível em: http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2012/171. Acesso em: 24 mai. 2018.
UNITED Nations Security Council (UNSC).. Report on children and armed conflict in Colombia (September 2011-June 2016). S/2016/837. 4 October 2016. Disponível em: http://undocs.org/S/2016/837. Acesso em: 24 mai. 2018.
VAUTRAVERS, Alexandre J. Why child soldiers are such a complex issue? Refugee Survey Quarterly, vol. 27, nº 4, 2009, pp.96-107.
WATCHLIST on Children and Armed Conflict. Colombia's War on Children. New York, February 2004, pp.1-47.
WESSELLS, Michael G. The Recruitment and Use of Girls in Armed Forces and Groups in Angola: Implications for Ethical Research and Reintegration, 2007. Disponível em: http://www.cpcnetwork.org/admin/includes/doc_view.php?ID=471. Acesso em: 10 dez. 2016.
WORTHEN, Miranda et alii. I stand like a woman: empowerment and human rights in the context of community- based reintegration of girl mothers formerly associated with fighting forces and armed groups. Journal of Human Rights Practice, vol. 2, no 1, 2010, pp.49-70.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
