Abstract
This paper seeks to complement the underexplored dimension of sexual orientation-based differences in Brazilian incomes.
Studies addressing the theme in Brazil have not recognized hitherto the main determinants of wage inequality along the
wage curve, given that only data from the 2010 Brazilian Census conducted by the Institute of Geography and Statistics
(IBGE) has been used up until now. Thus, importantly, this is the first paper using pooled data from the Continuous National
Household Sample Survey (Continuous PNAD) of 2012 to 2016 to evaluate income differentials based on sexual orientation,
employing the general Oxaca-Blinder (1973) decomposition method, which in turn is based on Recentered Influence
Function (RIF) regressions proposed by Firpo, Fortin and Lemieux (2007). Findings: the composition effect presents
favorable results for homosexuals as a group effect (both gays and lesbians), regarding demographic changes and human
capital as well as activity and occupational sorting. On the other hand, there is no evidence of discriminatory effects on
homosexuals in the context of the labor market. This is in sharp contrast with the effect of sexual orientation found in the
existing literature.
References
ADAM, B. D. Stigma and employ ability: discrimination by sex and sexual orientation in the ontario
legal profession. Canadian Review of Sociology, v. 18, n. 2, p. 216-221, 1981.
AKERLOF, G. A.; KRANTON, R. E. Economics and identity. Quarterly Journal of Economics,
v. 115, n. 3, p.715-753, Aug. 2000.
ALLEGRETTO, S. A.; ARTHUR, M. M. An empirical analysis of homosexual/heterosexual male
earnings differentials: unmarried and unequal? Industrial & Labor Relations Review, v. 54, n. 3,
p. 631-646, 2001.
AHMED, A. M.; HAMMARSTEDT, M. Sexual orientation and earnings: a register data based
approach to identify homosexual. Journal of Population Economics, v. 23, n. 3, p. 835-849, 2009.
AHMED, A. M.; ANDERSSON, L.; HAMMARSTEDT, M. Sexual orientation and full-time
monthly earnings, by public and private sector: evidence from swedish register data. Review of
Economics of the Household, v. 11, n. 1, p. 83-108, 2013a.
AHMED, A. M.; ANDERSSON, L.; HAMMARSTEDT, M. Are gay men and lesbians discriminated
against in the hiring process? Southern Economic Journal, v. 79, n. 3, p. 565-585, 2013b.
ANTECOL, H.; STEINBERGER, M. D. Labor supply differences between married heterosexual
women and partnered lesbians: a semi-parametric decomposition approach. Economic Inquiry, v. 51,
n. 1, p. 783-805, 2013.
ANTECOL, H.; JONG, A.; STEINBERGER, M. D. The sexual orientation wage gap: the role of
occupational sorting and human capital. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, v. 61, n. 4, p. 518-526,
ARABSHEIBANI, G. R.; MARIN, A.; WADSWORTH, J. In the pink: homosexual heterosexual
wage differentials in the UK. International Journal of Manpower, v. 25, n. 3/4, p. 343-354, 2004.
BADGETT, M. V. L. The wage effects of sexual orientation discrimination. Industrial &Labor
Relations Review, v. 48, n. 4, p. 726-739, 1995.
BARSKY, R.; BOUND, J.; CHARLES, K. K.; LUPTON, J. P. Accounting for the black-white wealth
gap: a nonparametric approach. Journal of the American Statistical Association, v. 97, n. 459, p.663-
, 2002.
BECKER, G. S. A treatise on the family. Harvard University Press, 1991.
BERG, N.; LIEN, D. Measuring the effect of sexual orientation on income: evidence of
discrimination? Contemporary Economic Policy, v. 20, n. 4, p. 394-414, 2002.
BLACK, D.; MAKAR, R.; SANDERS, S.; TAYLOR, L. The earnings effects of sexual orientation.
Industrial & Labor Relations Review, v. 56, n. 3, p. 449-469, 2003.
BLACK, D.; SANDERS, S.; TAYLOR, J. The economics of lesbian and gays families. Journal of
Economic Perspectives, v. 21, n. 2, p. 53-70, 2007.
BLANDFORD, J. M. The nexus of sexual orientation and gender in the determination of earnings.
Industrial & Labor Relations Review, v. 56, n. 4, p. 622-642, 2003.
BLINDER, A. S. Wage discrimination: reduced form and structural estimates. The Journal of Human
Resources, v. 8, n. 4, p. 436-455, 1973.
CARPENTER, C. S. Self-reported sexual orientation and earnings: evidence from California.
Industrial & Labor Relations Review, v. 58, n. 2, p. 258-273, 2005.
CARPENTER, C. S. Revisiting the income penalty for behaviourally gay men: evidence from
NHANES III. Labor Economics, v. 14, p. 25-34, 2007.
CARPENTER, C. S. Sexual orientation, work, and income in Canada. Canadian Journal of
Economics, v. 41, n. 4, p. 1239-1261, 2008a.
CARPENTER, C. S. Sexual orientation, income, and non-pecuniary economic outcomes: new
evidence from young lesbians in Australia. Review of Economics of the Household, v. 6, n. 4, p. 391-
, 2008b.
CALANDRINO, M. Sexual orientation discrimination on the UK labor market. University of
Oxford, 1999. (Working Paper St. Antony’s College).
CASARI, P.; MONSUETO, S.; DUARTE, P. Impacto da orientação sexual sobre o rendimento do
trabalho. In: ENCONTRO NACIONAL DE ECONOMIA, 41, Foz do Iguaçu, 2013. Anais...
CLAIN, S. H.; LEPPEL, K. An investigation into sexual orientation discrimination as an explanation
for wage differences. Applied Economics, v. 33, n. 1, p. 37-47, 2001.
COMITÊ DE DATAÇÃO DE CICLOS ECONÔMICOS (CODACE), 4 ago. 2015.
CORRÊA, M. V.; IRFFI, G.; SULIANO, D. Existe diferencial entre casais heterossexuais e
homossexuais? Uma abordagem para o mercado de trabalho brasileiro. In: ENCONTRO
NACIONAL DE ECONOMIA, 40, Porto de Galinhas, 2012. Anais...
DA SILVA, W. R.; DOS SANTOS, D. D. Trabalho e bem-estar: uma comparação entre casais
heterossexuais e homoafetivos brasileiros. In: ENCONTRO NACIONAL DE ECONOMIA, 43, Foz
do Iguaçu, 2016. Anais...
DE LA CROIX, D.; DOEPKE, M. Inequality and growth: why differential fertility matters. American
Economic Review, v. 73, n. 4, p. 1093-1113, 2003.
DILMAGHANI, M. Sexual orientation, labour earnings, and household income in Canada. Journal
of Labor Research, v. 39, n. 1, p. 41-55, 2017.
DINARDO, J.; FORTIN, N. M.; LEMIEUX, T. Labor market institutions and the distribution of
wages, 1973-1992: a semiparametric approach. Econometrica, v. 64, n. 5, p. 1001-1044, 1996.
DRYDAKIS, N. Sexual orientation discrimination in the labour market. Labour Economics, v. 16,
n. 4, p. 364-372, 2009.
DRYDAKIS, N. Women’s sexual orientation and labour market outcomes in Greece. Feminist
Economics, v. 17, n. 1, p. 89-117, 2011.
DRYDAKIS, N. Sexual orientation and labor market outcomes. IZA World of Labor 111, 2014.
DRYDAKIS, N. Sexual orientation discrimination in the United Kingdom’s labour market: a field
experiment. Human Relations, v. 68, n. 11, p. 1769-1796, 2015.
FIRPO, S.; FORTIN, N.; LEMIEUX, T. Decomposing wage distributions using recentered influence
function regressions. Mimeo. University of British Columbia, 2007.
FIRPO, S.; FORTIN, N.; LEMIEUX, T. Unconditional quantile regressions. Econometrica, v. 77,
n. 3, p. 953-973, 2009.
INSTITUTO BRASILEIRO DE GEOGRAFIA E ESTATÍSTICA. Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra
de Domicílios Contínua. Notas Metodológicas, Rio de Janeiro, v. 1, 2014.
INSTITUTO BRASILEIRO DE GEOGRAFIA E ESTATÍSTICA. Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra
de Domicílios Contínua. Notas Técnicas, Versão 1.5. Rio de Janeiro, 2018a.
INSTITUTO BRASILEIRO DE GEOGRAFIA E ESTATÍSTICA. Deflacionamento dos
Rendimentos do Trabalho dos Trimestres Móveis da PNAD Contínua. Notas Técnicas, Rio de Janeiro,
b.
INSTITUTO BRASILEIRO DE GEOGRAFIA E ESTATÍSTICA. Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra
de Domicílios Contínua. Notas Técnicas, Versão 1.5. Rio de Janeiro, 2019.
GORISCH, P. Reconhecimento dos direitos humanos LGBT. De Stonewall à ONU. Curitiba: Appris,
HAMPEL, F. R.; RONCHETTI, E. M.; ROUSSEEUW, P. J.; STAHEL, W. A. Robust statistics: the
approach based on influence functions. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.
HUMPERT, S. Somewhere over the rainbow: sexual orientation and earnings in Germany.
International Journal of Manpower, v. 37, n. 1, p. 69-98, 2016.
JACINTO, P.; FRIO, G.; UHR, D.; UHR, J. Z. Offer of work and sexual orientation: evidence of
Brazil. The Empirical Economics Letters, v. 16, n. 7, p. 663-667, 2017.
JEPSEN, L. K. Comparing the earnings of cohabiting lesbians, cohabiting heterosexual women, and
married women: evidence from the 2000 Census. Industrial Relations, v. 46, n. 4, p. 699-727, 2007.
KLAWITTER, M. M.; FLATT, V. The effects of state and local anti-discrimination policies on
earnings for gays and lesbians. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, v. 17, n. 4, p. 658-686,
LAURENT, T.; MIHOUBI, F. Sexual orientation and wage discrimination in france: the hidden side
of the rainbow. Journal of Labour Research, v. 33, n. 4, p. 487-527, 2012.
MINCER, J. Schooling, experience and earning. New York: Columbia University Press, 1974.
PATACCHINI, E.; RAGUSA, G.; ZENOU, Y. Unexplored dimensions of discrimination in Europe:
homosexuality and physical appearance. Journal of Population Economics, v. 28, p. 1045-1073,
OAXACA, R. Male-female wage differentials in urban labour markets. International Economic
Review, v. 14, n. 3, p. 693-709, 1973.
OLSEN, C. S. L. D. A comunidade LGBT na Dinamarca: a luta continua? A promoção dos direitos
da comunidade lgbt num estado de bem-estar. In: MUNDO afora. Políticas de combate à violência e
à discriminação contra pessoas LGBT. Brasília, 2015.
OZTURK, M. B. Sexual orientation discrimination: exploring the experiences of lesbian, gay and
bisexual employees in Turkey. Human Relations, v. 64, n. 8, p. 1099-1118, 2011.
PEPLAU, L. A.; FINGERHUT, A. The paradox of the lesbian worker. Journal of Social Issues,
v. 60, p. 719-735, 2004.
PLUG, E.; BERKHOUT, P. H. G. Sexual orientation, disclosure and earnings. 2008. (IZA
Discussion Paper, 3.290).
RIACH, P. A.; RICH, J. Field experiments of discrimination in the market place. The Economic
Journal, v. 112, n. 483, p. 480-518, 2002.
SAGARRA, L. Direitos LGBT e crimes de ódio na “Nação Arco-Íris”. In: MUNDO Afora. Políticas
de combate à violência e à discriminação contra pessoas LGBT. Brasília, 2015.
SULIANO, D.; IRFFI, G.; CORRÊA, M. V.; CAVACALNTE, A. OLIVEIRA, J. Sexual orientation
and wage differentials in brazilian labour market. Economia Aplicada, v. 20, n. 3, p. 195-221, 2016.
SULIANO, D.; IRFFI, G. Orientação sexual e alocação eficiente de mão-de-obra. In: ENCONTRO
NACIONAL DA ABET, 16, Salvador, 2019. Anais...
TEBALDI, E.; ELMSLIE, B. Sexual orientation and labour supply. Applied Economics, v. 38, n. 5,
p. 549-562, 2006.
UENO, K.; ROACH, T.; PENA-TALAMANTES, A. E. Sexual orientation and gender typicality of
the occupation in young adulthood. Social Forces, v. 92, n. 1, p. 81-108, 2013.
WEICHSELBAUMER, D. Sexual orientation discrimination in hiring. Labour Economics, v. 10,
n. 6, p. 629-642, 2003.
![Creative Commons License](http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc/4.0/88x31.png)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2021 Economia e Sociedade