Resumo
The paper aims to analyse and provide an overview of the emerging ecological macroeconomic approach from a methodological point of view. As with ecological economics, this emerging approach is being constituted by a methodologically plural set of studies. We identify and classify three main macroeconomic strands developed from ecological economic concerns. Firstly, we present the conventional macroeconomic IS-LM model adapted to a sustainable scale of production. Secondly, we discuss a fundamentalist post-Keynesian view on ecological economics that criticises the use of models more heavily. Finally, we describe the attempts to build ecological macroeconomic models based on the post-Keynesian approach. For each model, theories, methods, and assumptions are discussed and evaluated in light of ecological economic foundations. We conclude by reinforcing the role of methodological criticism in the consolidation of relevant ecological macroeconomics.
Referências
ANDRADE, D. C.; GARCIA, J. R. Estimating the Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) for Brazil from 1970 to 2010. Ecological Economics, v. 118, p. 49-56, 2015.
BERR, E. Keynes and sustainable development. International Journal of Political Economy, v. 38, n. 3, p. 22-38, 2009.
CALDWELL, B. J. Beyond positivism: economic methodology in the twentieth century. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
CALDWELL, B. J. Does methodology matter? How should it be practiced? Finnish Economics Papers, v. 3, n. 1, p. 64-71, 1990.
CALDWELL, B. J. Post-Keynesian methodology: as assessment. Review of Political Economy, v. 1, p. 43-64, 1989.
CAVERZASI, E.; GODIN, A. Post-Keynesian stock-flow consistent modeling: a survey. Cambridge Journal of Economics, v. 39, p. 157-187, 2015.
COHEN, A. J.; HARCOURT, G. C. Whatever happened to the Cambridge Capital Theory Controversies? Journal of Economic Perspectives, v. 17, 2003.
COSTANZA, R. Ecological economics: a research agenda. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, v. 2, n. 2, p. 335-357, 1991.
COSTANZA, R. What is ecological economics? Ecological Economics, v. 1, 1-7, 1989.
DAFERMOS, Y.; NIKOLAIDI, M.; GALANIS, G. A stock-flow-fund ecological macroeconomic model. Ecological Economics, v. 131, p. 191-207, 2017.
DALY, H. E.; FARLEY, J. [2004]. Ecological economics: principles and applications. 2 nd ed, Washington: Island Press, 2011.
DALY, H. E. Towards an environmental macroeconomics. Land Economics, v. 67, n. 2, p. 255-259, 1991.
DAVIDSON, P. Responses to lavoie, king, and dow on what post Keynesianism is and who is a post Keynesian. Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, v. 27, n. 3, p. 393-408, 2005.
DAVIDSON, P. Reality and economic theory. Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, v. 18, n. 4, summer, p. 479-508, 1996.
DAVIDSON, P. Money and the real world. 2 nd ed. London: Macmillan, 1978.
DECKER, S.; WOHAR, M. E. Substitutability or complementarity? Re-visiting Heyes’ ISLM-EE model. Ecological Economics, v. 74, p. 3-7, 2012.
DEQUECH, D. Uncertainty: a typology and refinements of existing concepts. Journal of Economic Issues, v. XLV, n. 3, p. 621-640, 2011.
DEQUECH, D. Neoclassical, mainstream, orthodox, and heterodox economics, Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, v. 30, n. 2, p. 279-302, 2007.
DOS SANTOS, C.H. Keynesian theorizing during hard times: stock-flow consistent models as an unexplored ‘frontier’ of Keynesian macroeconomics. Cambridge Journal of Economics, v. 30, n. 4, p. 541-565, 2006.
DOW, S. C. Axioms and Babylonian thought: a reply. Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, v. 27, n. 3, p. 385-391, 2005.
DOW, S. C. Methodological pluralism and pluralism of method. In: SALANTI, A.; SCREPANTI, E. (Ed.). Pluralism in economics: new perspectives in history and methodology. Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1997. p. 89-99.
DOW, S. C. Macroeconomics thought: a methodological approach. Oxford, New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985.
ECOLOGICAL Economics. Ecological macroeconomics: special section, v. 121, p. 181-253, 2016.
ECOLOGICAL Economics. The contribution of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen: special issue, v. 22, 1997.
FEYERABEND, P. K. Against method: outline of an anarchistic theory of knowledge. London: New Left Books, 1975.
FEYNMAN, C. The character of physical law. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1965.
FONTANA, G.; SAWYER, M. Towards post-Keynesian ecological macroeconomics. Ecological Economics, v. 121, p. 186-195, 2016.
FONTANA, G.; SAWYER, M. Post-Keynesian and Kaleckian thoughts on ecological macroeconomics. European Journal of Economics and Economic Policies: Intervention, v. 10, n. 2, p. 256-267, 2013.
FRIEDMAN, M. The methodology of positive economics. In: FRIEDMAN, M. (Ed.). Essays in positive economics. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1953.
FUNTOWICZ, S. O.; RAVETZ J. The worth of a songbird: ecological economics as a postnormal science. Ecological Economics, v. 10, p. 197-207, 1994.
GEORGESCU-ROEGEN, N. The entropy law and the economic process. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971.
GOODWIN, R. M. The nonlinear accelerator and the persistence of business cycles. Econometrica, v. 19, p. 1-17, 1951.
GOWDY, J.; ERICKSON, J. Ecological economics at a crossroad. Ecological Economics, v. 53, p. 17-20, 2005.
HAMOUDA, O. F.; HARCOURT, G. C. Post Keynesianism: from criticism to coherence. Bulletin of Economic Research, v. 40, n. 1, p. 1-33, 1988.
HARDT, L.; O’NEILL, D. W. Ecological macroeconomic models: assessing current developments. Ecological Economics, v. 134, p. 198-211, 2017.
HARRIS, J. M. Ecological macroeconomics: consumption, investment, and climate change. Global Development and Environmental Institute, 2008. (Working Paper, n. 08-02).
HEYES, A. A proposal for the greening of textbook macro: ‘IS-LM-EE’. Ecological Economics, v. 32, p. 1-7, 2000.
HICKS, J. R. IS-LM: an explanation. Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, v. 3, n. 2, p. 139- 154, 1981.
HICKS, J. R. Value and capital. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939.
HICKS, J. R. Mr. Keynes and the “classics”: a suggested interpretation. Econometrica, v. 5, n. 2, p. 147-159, 1937.
HODGSON, G. On the problem of formalism in economics. In: FULLBROOK, E. (Ed.). Ontology and economics. Tony Lawson and his critics. London and New York: Routledge, 2009.
HOLT, R. P. F.; PRESSMAN, S. E.; SPASH, C. (Ed.). Post Keynesian and ecological economics. Confronting environmental issues. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2009.
HOLT, R. P. F.; SPASH, C. L. Post Keynesian and ecological economics: alternative perspectives on sustainability and environmental economics. In: HOLT, R. P. F.; PRESSMAN, S.; SPASH, C. L. (Ed.). Post Keynesian and ecological economics: confronting environmental issues. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2009. p. 3-24.
JACKSON, T. Prosperity without growth: economics for a finite planet. London: Sterling, VA, Earthscan, 2009.
JACKSON, T.; DRAKE, B.; VICTOR, P.; KRATENA, K.; SOMMER, M. Foundations for an ecological macroeconomics: literature review and model development. Workpackage 205, Milestone 38, Welfare Wealthy Work for Europe Project. Vienna: WIFO, 2014. (Working Paper, n. 65).
JACKSON, T.; VICTOR, P. Does slow growth lead to rising inequality? Some theoretical reflections and numerical simulations. Ecological Economics, v. 121, p. 206-219, 2016.
JACKSON, T.; VICTOR, P. Does credit create a ‘growth imperative’? A quasi-stationary economy with interest-bearing debt. Ecological Economics, v. 120, p. 32-48, 2015a.
JACKSON, T.; VICTOR, P. Towards a stock-flow consistent ecological macroeconomics. An overview of the FALSTAFF framework with some illustrative result. UNEP Inquiry/CIGI Research Convening United Nations Environment Programme, 2015b. (Inquiring working paper 15/04).
JACKSON, T.; VICTOR, P. Productivity and work in the ‘green economy’ – some theoretical reflections and empirical tests. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, v. 1, p. 101-108, 2011.
KALDOR, N. A model of the trade cycle. The Economic Journal, v. 50, p. 78-92, 1940.
KALECKI, M. A macrodynamic theory of business cycles. Econometrica, v. 3, p. 327-344, 1935.
KALECKI, M. Selected essays on the dynamics of the capitalist economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971.
KALLIS, G.; MARTINEZ-ALIER, J. and NORGAARD, R.B., 2009. Paper assets, real debts: Na ecological-economic exploration of the global economic crisis, Critical perspectives on international business, v. 5, no. 1, 14-25.
KEYNES, J.M. The general theory of employment. Quarterly Journal of Economics, v. 51, p. 209-223, 1937.
KEYNES, J. M. The general theory of employment, interest and money. London: Macmillan Press, 1936.
KEYNES, J. M. A treatise on probability. London: Macmillan, 1921.
KRONENBERG, T. Finding common ground between ecological economics and postKeynesian economics. Ecological Economics, v. 69, p. 1488-1494, 2010.
LAVOIE, M. Post-Keynesian economics: new foundations. Cheltenham, Northampton: Edward Elgar, 2014.
LAVOIE, M. Towards a post-Keynesian consensus in macroeconomics: reconciling the Cambridge and Wall Street views. In: HEIN, E.; NIECHOJ, T.; STOCKHAMMER, E. (Ed.). Macroeconomic policies on shaky foundations: wither mainstream economics? Marburg: Metropolis Verlag, 2009. p.75-99.
LAWN, P. A. On Heyes’ IS-LM-EE proposal to establish an environmental macroeconomics. Environment and Development Economics, v. 8, 31–562003.
LAWSON, T. Reorienting economics. London: Routledge, 2003.
LUCAS, R.E. and SARGENT, T.J. After Keynesian macroeconomics. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Quarterly Review, v. 3, no. 2, 1-161978.
MACEDO AND SILVA, A.C. and DOS SANTOS, C.H. Peering over the edge of the short period? The Keynesian roots of stock-flow consistent macroeconomic models. Cambridge Journal of Economics, v. 35, 105-124, 2011.
MAYUMI, K. The origins of ecological economics. The bioeconomics of Georgescu-Roegen. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.
MEARMAN, A. Recent developments in post Keynesian methodology and their relevance for understanding environmental issues. In: HOLT, R. P. F.; PRESSMAN, S. E.; SPASH, C. (Ed.). Post Keynesian and ecological economics. Confronting environmental issues. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2009.
MEADOWS, D.; MEADOWS, D.; RANDERS, J.; BEHRENS III, W. The limits to growth. New York: Universe Books, 1972.
MINSKY, H. P. Stabilizing an unstable economy. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008.
MINSKY, H. P. The financial instability hypothesis: an interpretation of Keynes and an alternative to ‘standard’ theory. Nebraska Journal of Economics and Business, v. 16, n. 1, p. 5-16, 1977.
MODIGLIANI, F. Liquidity preference and the theory of interest and money, Econometrica, v. 12, p. 45-88, 1944.
MORAES, G. I.; SERRA, M. A. O Modelos IS-LM-EE para economias abertas e distinções dos efeitos para as economias nacionais. Economia e Sociedade, v. 20, n. 1(41), p. 53-78, 2001.
NAQVI, A. Modeling growth, distribution, and the environment in a stock-flow consistent framework. Welfare Wealthy Work for Europe Project, WIFO, Vienna, 2015. (Policy Paper, n. 18).
NORGAARD, R. B. The case for methodological pluralism. Ecological Economics, v. 1, p. 37-57, 1989.
PATINKIN, D. Money, interest and prices. 2 nd ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1956.
PATINKIN, D. Price flexibility and full employment. The American Economic Review, v. 38, p. 543-564, 1948.
PIKETTY, T. Capital in the 21st Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014.
REZAI, A.; STAGL, S. Ecological macroeconomics: introduction and review. Ecological Economics, v. 121, p. 181-185, 2016.
REZAI, A.; TAYLOR, L.; MECHLER, R. Ecological macroeconomics: an application to climate change. Ecological Economics, v. 85, p. 69-76, 2013.
ROCKSTRÖM, J.; STEFFEN, W.; NOONE, K.; PERSSON, A.; CHAPIN, F. S.; LAMBIN, E. R.; LENTON, T. M.; SCHEFFER, M.; FOLKE, C.; SHELLNHUBER, H. J.; NYKVIST, B.; WIT, C. A.; HUGHES, T.; VAN DER LEEUW, S.; RODHE, H.; SÖRLIN, S.; SNYDER, P. K.; COSTANZA, R.; SVEDIN, U.; FALKENMARK, M.; KARLBERG, L.; CORELL, R. W.; FABRY, V. J.; HANSEN, J.; WALKER, B.; LIVERMAN, D.; RICHARDSON, K.; CRUTZEN, P.; FOLEY, J. A safe operating space for humanity, Nature, v. 461, p. 472-475, 2009.
RØPKE, I. Complementary system perspectives in ecological macroeconomics – the example of transition investments during the crisis. Ecological Economics, v. 121, p. 237-245, 2016.
RØPKE, I. Ecological macroeconomics: implications for the roles of consumer-citizens. In: COHEN, M.J.; BROWN, H. S.; VERGRAGT, P. J. (Ed.). Innovations in sustainable consumption. New economics, socio-technical transitions and social practices. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2013. p. 48-64.
RØPKE, I. Trends in the development of ecological economics from the late 1980s to the early 2000s. Ecological Economics, v. 55, n. 2, p. 262-290, 2005.
ROSSER JR., J. B. Post-Keynesian perspectives and complex ecologic-economic dynamics. Metroeconomica, v. 62, n. 1, p. 96-121, 2010.
ROSSER JR., J. B. Theoretical and policy issues in complex post Keynesian ecological economics. In: HOLT, R. P. F.; PRESSMAN, S.; SPASH, C. L. (Ed.). Post Keynesian and ecological economics: confronting environmental issues. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2009. p. 221-236.
SCHNEIDER, F.; KALLIS, G.; MARTINEZ-ALIER, J. Crisis or opportunity? Economic degrowth for social equity and ecological sustainability. Introduction to this special issue. Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 18, n. 6, p. 511-518, 2010.
SILVA, M. C. E.; TEIXEIRA, A. A. C. A bibliometric account of the evolution of EE in the last two decades: is ecological economics (becoming) a post-normal science? Ecological Economics, v. 70, p. 849-862, 2011.
SIM, N. C. S. Environmental Keynesian macroeconomics: some further discussion. Ecological Economics, v. 59, p. 401-405, 2006.
SODDY, F. [1926]. Wealth, virtual wealth and debt: the solution of the economic paradox. New York: E.P. Dutton & C., 1933.
SÖDERBAUM, P. Sustainability economics as a contested concept. Ecological Economics, v. 70, p. 1019-1020, 2011.
SOLOW, R. The economics of resources or the resources of economics, Richard T. Ely Lecture. The American Economic Review, Pittsburgh, The American Economic Association, v. 64, n. 2, p. 1-14, 1974.
SPASH, C. L. New foundations for ecological economics. Ecological Economics, v. 77, p. 36- 47, 2012.
SPASH, C. L.; SCHANDL, H. Challenges for post Keynesian growth theory: utopia meets environmental and social reality. In: HOLT, R. P. F.; PRESSMAN, S.; SPASH, C. L. (Ed.). Post Keynesian and ecological economics: confronting environmental issues. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2009. p. 47-76.
STIGLITZ, J. E. A neoclassical analysis of the economics of natural resources. In: SMITH, V. K. (Ed.). Scarcity and growth reconsidered. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1979.
TAYLOR, L.; REZAI, A.; FOLEY, D. K. An integrated approach to climate change, income distribution, employment, and economic growth. Ecological Economics, v. 121, p. 196-205, 2016.
URHAMMER, E.; RØPKE, I. Macroeconomic narratives in a world of crises: an analysis of stories about solving the system crisis. Ecological Economics, v. 96, p. 62-70, 2013.
VAN DEN BERGH, J. C. J. M. Relax about GDP growth: implications for climate and crisis policies. Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 18, n. 6, p. 540-543, 2010.
VATN, A. Combining post Keynesian, ecological and institutional economics perspective. In: HOLT, R. P. F.; PRESSMAN, S.; SPASH, C. L. (Ed.). Post Keynesian and ecological economics: confronting environmental issues. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2009. p. 114-138.
VERCELLI, A. Methodological foundations of macroeconomics: Keynes and Lucas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
VICTOR, P. A. Managing without growth: slower by design, not disaster. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, 2008.
WACKERNAGEL, M.; REES, W. Our ecological footprint: reducing human impact on the earth. Gabriola Island: British Columbia, New Society Publishers, 1996.
O periódico Economia e Sociedade disponibiliza todos os conteúdos em acesso aberto, através da plataforma SciELO, e usa uma licença aberta para preservar a integridade dos direitos autorais dos artigos em ambiente de acesso aberto.
O periódico adotou até Abril/2015 a licença Creative Commons do tipo BY-NC. A partir de Maio/2015 a licença em uso é do tipo Atribuição 4.0 Internacional (CC BY 4.0), disponível no seguinte link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.pt
Autores são integralmente responsáveis pelo conteúdo e informações apresentadas em seus manuscritos.
O periódico Economia e Sociedade encoraja os Autores a autoarquivar seus manuscritos aceitos, publicando-os em blogs pessoais, repositórios institucionais e mídias sociais acadêmicas, bem como postando-os em suas mídias sociais pessoais, desde que seja incluída a citação completa à versão do website da revista.